Shuttle vectors, developed by Ruvkun & Ausubel (1981) Nature 289:85-88, provide a way to insert foreign genetic materials into a position of choice in a large plasmid, virus, or genome. There are two main problems encountered when dealing with large plasmids or genomes. Firstly, the large plasmid may have many sites for each restriction enzyme. unique, site-specific cleavage reactions are not reproducible and multisite cleavage reactions followed by ligation lead to great difficulties due to the scrambling of the many fragments whose order and orientation one does not want changed. Secondly, the transformation efficiency with large DNA plasmids is very low. Shuttle vectors allow one to overcome these difficulties by facilitating the insertion, often in vitro, of the foreign genetic material into a smaller plasmid, then transferring, usually by in vivo techniques, to the larger plasmid.
A shuttle vector consists of a DNA molecule, usually a plasmid, capable of being introduced into the ultimate recipient bacteria. It also includes a copy of the fragment of the recipient genome into which the foreign genetic material is to be inserted and a DNA segment coding for a selectable trait, which is also inserted into the recipient genome fragment. The selectable trait ("marker") is conveniently inserted by transposon mutagenesis or by restriction enzymes and ligases.
The shuttle vector can be introduced into the ultimate recipient cell typically a bacterium of the genus Agrobacterium by a tri-parental mating (Ruvkun & Ausubel, supra), direct transfer of a self-mobilizable vector in a bi-parental mating, direct uptake of exogenous DNA by Agrobacterium cells ("transformation", using the conditions of M. Holsters et al. (1978) Molec. Gen. Genet. 163:181-187), by spheroplast fusion of Agrobacterium with another bacterial cell, by uptake of liposome-encapsulated DNA, or infection with a shuttle vector that is based on a virus that is capable of being packaged in vitro. A tri-parental mating involves the mating of a strain containing a mobilizable plasmid, which carries genes for plasmid mobilization and conjugative transfer, with the strain containing the shuttle vector. If the shuttle vector is capable of being mobilized by the plasmid genes, the shuttle vector is transferred to the recipient cell containing the large genome, e.g. the Ti or Ri plasmids of Agrobacterium strains.
After the shuttle vector is introduced into the recipient cell, possible events include a double cross over with one recombinational event on either side of the marker. This event will result in transfer of a DNA segment containing the marker to the recipient genome replacing a homologous segment lacking the insert. To select for cells that have lost the original shuttle vector, the shuttle vector must be incapable of replicating in the ultimate host cell or be incompatible with an independently selectable plasmid pre-existing in the recipient cell. One common means of arranging this is to provide in the third parent another plasmid which is incompatible with the shuttle vector and which carries a different drug resistance marker. Therefore, when one selects for resistance to both drugs, the only surviving cells are those in which the marker on the shuttle vector has recombined with the recipient genome. If the shuttle vector carries an extra marker, one can then screen for and discard cells that are the result of a single cross-over between the shuttle vector and the recipient plasmid, resulting in cointegrates in which the entire shuttle vector is integrated with the recipient plasmid. If the foreign genetic material is inserted into or adjacent to the marker that is selected for, it will also be integrated into the recipient plasmid as a result of the same double recombination. It might also be carried along when inserted into the homologous fragment at a spot not within or adjacent to the marker, but the greater the distance separating the foreign genetic material from the marker, the more likely will be a recombinational event occurring between the foreign genetic material and marker, preventing transfer of the foreign genetic material.
Shuttle vectors have proved useful in manipulation of Agrobacterium plasmids: see D. J. Garfinkel et al. (1981) Cell 27:143-153, A. J. M. Matzke & M. D. Chilton (1981) J. Molec. Appl. Genet. 1:39-49, and J. Leemans et al. (1981) J. Molec. Appl. Genet. 1:149-164, who referred to shuttle vectors by the term "intermediate vectors".